INTRODUCTION:
From its inception in 1947, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) has been shrouded in a considerable level of mystique. Particularly during the Cold War, the CIA appeared nearly invincible to some of its most capable rivals. However, following the 1961 operational debacle at the Bay of Pigs, the once-revered Agency became a “diplomatic liability” to the United States government. Domestically, the event ushered in an era of governmental scrutiny as newspapers abandoned traditional policies of self-censorship and began treating covert operations as matters of public interest. Abroad, the failed mission was exploited by the Soviet Union to intervene in Latin America, most prominently during the Cuban Missile crisis a year later. As a further consequence, relations between the President and the CIA became progressively estranged—a trend that would persist through the Kennedy and Johnson administrations. This case examines two very different methods for managing the national security process: that under President Eisenhower, who directed the invasion’s genesis, and that of Kennedy, who saw the plan to fruition.

STRATEGY:
The CIA’s original “Trinidad Plan” for the Cuban operation, developed under President Eisenhower, was reviewed and approved, albeit unenthusiastically, by a committee of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. President Kennedy’s initial hesitance to support the proposal was further reinforced by Secretary of State Dean Rusk who thought that the spectacular operation could not successfully conceal U.S. involvement. Pursuant to Kennedy’s guidelines, the CIA quickly reorganized the attack. The Agency selected the Bay of Pigs as the new landing site and formulated what became known as “Operation Zapata.” Zapata was considered by the CIA and JCS to be less optimal than the Trinidad Plan, though this judgment was unknown to the President at the time. Strategic changes continued even once the operation was underway. Thus, what began as a poorly planned attack progressed to an ad hoc invasion, partially handicapped by the White House and State Department’s fear of negative international public opinion.

INTEGRATED ELEMENTS OF NATIONAL POWER:
Two days prior to the invasion, the United States launched a small airstrike against Castro’s air force. Due to interagency compromises, this attack was just large enough to implicate the United States and sufficiently small to be ineffective. The failed airstrike alerted the international community to U.S. involvement, leading President Kennedy, again influenced by Secretary Rusk, to postpone a second air attack. As a result, most of the Cuban air force remained operational, precluding all hope of a successful invasion. On D-Day, flotillas were delayed when many snagged on coral reefs, which the CIA had wrongly identified as seaweed or cloud reflections based on aerial photographs. By daybreak, Castro’s air force managed to contain the invading force of Cuban exiles until the arrival of 20,000 Cuban soldiers, armed with Soviet tanks, effectively ended the incursion.

EVALUATION:
The interagency, including the CIA, Department of State, JCS, and Executive Office of the President, failed to create an effective invasion plan. Proper integration was inhibited by CIA misinformation, miscommunication between planners and participants, excessive secrecy within the Agency and State Department, pervasive groupthink, and interagency compromises based on the lowest common denominator. Tactical complications during the landing, such as inadequate resources, mechanical failures, flawed CIA information regarding coral reefs, and poor distribution of ammunition and communications equipment, contributed to the weakness of the invasion. Operationally, successful execution was prevented due to abandonment of the Trinidad Plan, alterations to the airstrikes, and poor presidential advising. Strategically, Kennedy’s inexperience, poor CIA command organization, and erroneous CIA estimations of the strength of Castro and the Cuban Underground undermined the incursion. These failures, exacerbated by the urgent timeline and competing interagency interests, ultimately led to the Bay of Pigs debacle.

RESULTS:
Although it is difficult to undertake a comprehensive assessment of all the effects of the abortive operation, some primary consequences are evident. Abroad, the failed invasion proved an American diplomatic embarrassment, and undermined U.S. prestige. The CIA’s standing suffered and the Agency lost considerable influence as its golden age began to dissipate. The debacle seemingly legitimized Soviet interference in South America and inadvertently contributed to the Cuban Missile crisis. Finally, the event ushered in an era of adversarial relations between the U.S. media and the federal government, as journalists began treating covert operations as matters of public interest.

CONCLUSION:
When the United States government attempted to oust the pro-Communist Cuban government in 1961, its chief planners failed to establish an incontrovertible plan. Competing interests and flawed integration resulted in an ineffective, ad hoc strategy. Coherence proved inadequate due to the President’s inability to purge underlying assumptions about Cuba. Tactical, operational, and strategic errors contributed to the debacle, as did an urgent timetable and competing interagency interests. As a result, the CIA specifically, and the United States generally, suffered an irreparable loss of prestige.